Credits & Data Sources

Play Deep Time Earth is built on the following open datasets and tools.

Data Sources

Cao et al. (2024), Earth's tectonic and plate boundary evolution over 1.8 billion years, model version 2.4

CC BY 4.0

Continental crust fragments and plate boundaries at 540–1800 Ma. Not elevations, climate or actual palaeocoastlines.

Cao et al. (2024), Earth's tectonic and plate boundary evolution over 1.8 billion years, model version 2.4

Source ↗Related study ↗

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.13628813

Modifications: Reconstructed using the model's palaeomagnetic frame and valid source ages. A fixed +60° eastward display rotation aids continuity without changing source data. Latitudes and poles are preserved; display longitudes differ from the model's. Plate boundaries use 5 Ma intervals; interpolation does not improve scientific accuracy. Continental configuration and shape differences remain at 540 Ma.

⚠ The dataset is CC BY 4.0, distinct from the paper's CC BY-NC-ND license. Paper figures and supplemental videos are not redistributed.

PaleoMIST 1.0

CC BY 4.0

A global ice-sheet and paleotopography model for the past 80,000 years. Source steps are 2,500 years apart and include Earth deformation and spatially varying sea-level change.

Gowan, E.J. (2019). Global ice sheet reconstruction for the past 80000 years. PANGAEA, DOI 10.1594/PANGAEA.905800. Study: Gowan et al. (2021), A new global ice sheet reconstruction for the past 80,000 years, Nature Communications 12, 1199, DOI 10.1038/s41467-021-21469-w.

Source ↗Related study ↗

DOI: 10.1594/PANGAEA.905800

Modifications: Terrain and reconstructed ice-sheet margins from scenario a1 (Hudson Bay remains ice-covered through MIS 3) adapted for display. The nearest source step, spaced 2,500 years apart, is shown; the modern comparison uses the same model baseline. Derived data: CC BY 4.0. Smoother edges do not improve observational accuracy. The display can omit small islands and narrow straits and does not establish human movement or passability. Ice shows reconstructed extent, not sea ice or a definitive grounding map. 0 ka refers to 1950 CE. Not applied before 80,000 years ago; no warranty or author endorsement is implied.

Underlying model sources

Underlying sources credited by the model. The service uses PaleoMIST; the originals, papers and figures below are not separately redistributed.

PaleoDEM

CC BY 4.0

Paleodigital Elevation Models (0–540 Ma heightmaps)

Scotese, C.R. and Wright, N.M. (2018). PALEOMAP Paleodigital Elevation Models (PaleoDEMS) for the Phanerozoic.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5460860

Modifications: Terrain adapted for visualization with narrow-strait corrections. Modern coastline data is applied only at 0 Ma.

PaleoMAP PaleoCoastlines data v7.3

CC BY 4.0

81 global coastline reconstructions (0–535 Ma). PaleoDEM coastlines adjusted using fossil records to represent maximum marine flooding.

Kocsis, A.T. and Scotese, C.R. (2023). PaleoMAP PaleoCoastlines data, v7.3. Zenodo. Study: Mapping paleocoastlines and continental flooding during the Phanerozoic, Earth-Science Reviews, DOI 10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103463.

Source ↗Related study ↗

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7994000

Modifications: Coastlines and inland waters at 5–535 Ma adapted for display, with interpolation between source ages. 0 Ma uses modern Natural Earth coastlines and existing inland water; 540 Ma uses terrain-based water. Derived water data is also CC BY 4.0. Water: these representative reconstructions show maximum marine flooding, not lake or coastline boundaries at an exact selected instant. Changes between source ages are visual estimates and do not establish when a basin became isolated or reconnected.

Natural Earth

Public Domain

Ocean / marine polygons for shallow-sea correction at 0Ma (modern coastline)

Natural Earth — naturalearthdata.com

Modifications: Used to correct the display of modern coastlines and shallow seas.

CESM paleoclimate simulation

CC BY 4.0

Modeled surface temperature, precipitation and wind at 0–540 Ma

Li, X. et al. (2022). A high-resolution climate simulation dataset for the past 540 million years. Scientific Data, 9, 371.

DOI: 10.1038/s41597-022-01490-4

Modifications: Annual surface temperature from CESM (T): a model estimate, not a direct observation of the past. Adapted for visualization, with interpolation between source ages 10 Ma apart. Global surface temperature is an area-weighted annual mean. 0 Ma is pre-industrial; Köppen is an approximate classification based on annual means.

PBDB

CC0 1.0

Paleobiology Database (fossil occurrence records)

Peters, S.E. and McClennen, M. (2016). The Paleobiology Database application programming interface. Paleobiology, 42(1), 1-7.

Modifications: Up to 10,000 records sampled per 5 Ma window (0 Ma: 0–2.5 Ma), with supported ancient locations reconstructed. Sampling varies by age, region and taxon; counts are not abundance or biodiversity. Original references are available through PBDB.

GPlates / PyGPlates

GPL v2 (software; model data licensed separately)

Tools for plate-tectonic and ancient-location reconstruction

Müller, R.D. et al. (2018). GPlates: Building a Virtual Earth Through Deep Time. G-cubed, 19.

DOI: 10.1029/2018GC007584

Modifications: Used to reconstruct ancient positions from the models.

SETON2012 rotation model

CC BY 4.0

0–200 Ma plate boundaries (separate model comparison)

Seton, M. et al. (2012). Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200 Ma. Earth-Science Reviews, 113.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10596050

Modifications: Plate boundaries reconstructed at 5 Ma intervals and simplified for display.

PALEOMAP PaleoAtlas (rotation model)

CC BY 4.0

0–540 Ma coordinate reconstruction (Scotese 2016 reference frame; per-point validity checked)

Scotese, C.R. (2016). PALEOMAP PaleoAtlas for GPlates, v3. Zenodo.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10596610

Modifications: Ancient locations reconstructed for fossils, cities and geological events, within the model's supported locations and ages.

Müller 2022 rotation model

CC BY 4.0

200–540 Ma plate boundary reconstruction

Müller, R.D. et al. (2022). A tectonic-rules-based mantle reference frame since 1 billion years ago – implications for supercontinent cycles and plate–mantle system evolution. Solid Earth, 13, 1127–1159. Model v1.2.4.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.13636799

Modifications: Plate boundaries reconstructed at 5 Ma intervals and simplified for display.

PhyloPic

Per-image CC0 / CC BY

Taxon silhouettes in fossil details and creature cards

PhyloPic — phylopic.org

Modifications: Resized for display. Each image includes its original attribution and artwork/license links.

ICS geological timescale 2026/06

CC BY 4.0

Single source for geological boundaries and period names

International Commission on Stratigraphy, International Chronostratigraphic Chart, 2026/06.

Source ↗

Modifications: Geological boundaries adapted for the service with translated names and service-selected display colors.

CenCO₂PIP v1.02

CC BY 4.0

1 Ma summaries of Cenozoic CO₂ proxy records

CenCO2PIP Consortium (2023), Science 382, eadi5177; vetted data v1.02 (2024).

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.14537923

Modifications: Eligible category 1/2 records; median of study medians. Ranges describe samples, not confidence intervals. Empty bins remain unavailable.

Miller 2020 sea level

CC BY 4.0

Sea-level reconstruction, 0.98–64.82 Ma

Miller, K.G. et al. (2020). Smoothed Cenozoic sea-level relative to modern from deep-sea geochemical and continental margin records [dataset]. PANGAEA.

DOI: 10.1594/PANGAEA.923139

Modifications: Linear interpolation of supplied smoothed series; no extrapolation. 0 Ma is a present-day 0 m reference.

Macrostrat

CC BY 4.0

Present-day map geology at 25 city centers

Macrostrat; Peters et al. (2018). Original map references retained and displayed for each city.

Source ↗

Modifications: Selected geology information displayed for each city, retaining original unit names and ages. Not a paleomap or site survey.

Smithsonian NMNH

CC0 1.0

Fossil specimen photos with verified CC0 rights

Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Paleobiology and Education & Outreach.

Source ↗

Modifications: Photos selected and resized for display. They are not asserted to be the same specimens as PBDB records.

Plate boundaries are a separate model comparison. Their reference frame differs from PALEOMAP terrain and coordinates; coastlines may not align.

A flow illustration derived from wind and sea temperature. It is not an ocean circulation simulation; particle speed is not a physical velocity.

Wind: CESM annual mean U/V, 1000 hPa. Atmospheric rim glow is decorative.

Human origins, movement and encounters — research

Event dates, places, evidence and uncertainties are independently summarized from the linked primary studies. Paper text, figures and genetic sequences are not redistributed. Each paper and its associated data retain their own rights.

Literature reviewed: 2026-09-25

New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of Homo sapiensHublin et al. · 2017-06-07 · DOI: 10.1038/nature22336
A weakly structured stem for human origins in AfricaRagsdale et al. · 2023-05-17 · DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06055-y
Pleistocene chronology and history of hominins and fauna at Denisova CaveJacobs et al. · 2025-05-21 · DOI: 10.1038/s41467-025-60140-6
Denisovan mitochondrial DNA from dental calculus of the >146,000-year-old Harbin craniumFu et al. · 2025-06-18 · DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.05.040
The proteome of the late Middle Pleistocene Harbin individualFu et al. · 2025-06-18 · DOI: 10.1126/science.adu9677
Ancient proteins identify various Denisovan remains from Southwest ChinaRao et al. · 2026-09-09 · DOI: 10.1038/s41586-026-10976-9
Denisovans from southwestern China and their subsistence strategiesRuan et al. · 2026-09-09 · DOI: 10.1038/s41586-026-10997-4
The genome of the offspring of a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan fatherSlon et al. · 2018-08-22 · DOI: 10.1038/s41586-018-0455-x
Major expansion in the human niche preceded out of Africa dispersalHallett et al. · 2025-06-18 · DOI: 10.1038/s41586-025-09154-0
Neanderthal ancestry through time: Insights from genomes of ancient and present-day humansIasi et al. · 2024-12-12 · DOI: 10.1126/science.adq3010
Earliest modern human genomes constrain timing of Neanderthal admixtureSümer et al. · 2024-12-12 · DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-08420-x
Genomic evidence supports the “long chronology” for the peopling of SahulGandini et al. · 2025-11-28 · DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.ady9493
Middle and Late Pleistocene Denisovan subsistence at Baishiya Karst CaveXia et al. · 2024-07-03 · DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07612-9
Genetic diversity of late Neanderthals in northwestern EuropeBossoms Mesa et al. · 2026-06-24 · DOI: 10.1038/s41586-026-10625-1
The evolutionary history and unique genetic diversity of Indigenous AmericansAraújo Castro e Silva et al. · 2026-04-22 · DOI: 10.1038/s41586-026-10406-w
A male Denisovan mandible from Pleistocene TaiwanTsutaya et al. · 2025-04-10 · DOI: 10.1126/science.ads3888
The Persian plateau served as hub for Homo sapiens after the main out of Africa dispersalVallini et al. · 2024-03-25 · DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46161-7
Homo sapiens reached the higher latitudes of Europe by 45,000 years agoMylopotamitaki et al. · 2024-01-31 · DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06923-7
40,000-Year-Old Individual from Asia Provides Insight into Early Population Structure in EurasiaYang et al. · 2017-10-12 · DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.030
The population history of northeastern Siberia since the PleistoceneSikora et al. · 2019-06-05 · DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-1279-z
Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native AmericansMoreno-Mayar et al. · 2018-01-03 · DOI: 10.1038/nature25173
Early human dispersals within the AmericasMoreno-Mayar et al. · 2018-11-08 · DOI: 10.1126/science.aav2621
Independent age estimates resolve the controversy of ancient human footprints at White SandsPigati et al. · 2023-10-05 · DOI: 10.1126/science.adh5007
Nuclear DNA sequences from the Middle Pleistocene Sima de los Huesos homininsMeyer et al. · 2016-03-14 · DOI: 10.1038/nature17405
Neanderthals in central Asia and SiberiaKrause et al. · 2007-09-30 · DOI: 10.1038/nature06193
Genetic insights into the social organization of NeanderthalsSkov et al. · 2022-10-19 · DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05283-y

Museum specimens

Photographs of separate museum specimens. These are not asserted to be the same specimens as mapped PBDB occurrences. Names and ages retain museum catalog wording.