During the Carboniferous–Permian Late Paleozoic Ice Age, ice sheets advanced and retreated across southern Gondwana. Multiple ice centres and intervals of retreat replaced the idea of one continuous ice blanket; carbon dioxide was an important control.
Annual surface temperature from CESM (T): a model estimate, not a direct observation of the past.
0 Ma: pre-industrial climate/CO₂; modern sea-level and O₂ references.
Glacial-interglacial cycles with 120m+ sea level swings. Homo sapiens spread from Africa across the globe, and most megafauna went extinct.
Annual model means · 0 Ma: pre-industrial
Mapped sample / window records · not abundance
0–2.5 Ma
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API records whose numeric ages miss the queried window are excluded from the map and counts, with exclusions retained in provenance.
Plate boundaries are a separate model comparison. Their reference frame differs from PALEOMAP terrain and coordinates; coastlines may not align.
· 0 Ma
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